Towards Sustainable Urban Water Governance and Supply Systems in Kaduna Metropolitan Area, Nigeria: Challenges, Innovations, and Recommendations

Introduction and Consent to Participate in the Survey:

Dear Participant,

We invite you to take part in a research study titled “Towards Sustainable Urban Water Governance and Supply Systems in Kaduna Metropolitan Area, Nigeria: Challenges, Innovations, and Recommendations.” This study aims to evaluate the current state of water management in the metropolitan area, identify challenges, and propose innovative approaches for sustainable water governance.

Your participation in this survey is entirely voluntary, and we greatly appreciate your time and input. Please read the following information carefully before proceeding with the questionnaire:

Participant Information:

• Your identity will be kept confidential, and all responses will be anonymized and aggregated for research purposes only.
• The data collected will be used for academic research and publication purposes, ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.
• Your participation is entirely voluntary, and you can withdraw from the survey at any time without any consequences.

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If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study, you may contact Charles at bijimikyomconsult@gmail.com

Thank you for contributing to this research on sustainable urban water governance and supply systems in Kaduna Metropolitan Area, Nigeria. Your input will help us gain valuable insights and work towards sustainable water management practices in the region.

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Life Choices and Challenges: Lessons from ‘A Tribe Called Judah.’

Life Choices and Challenges: Lessons from ‘A Tribe Called Judah.’

The Nigerian movie titled “A Tribe Called Judah” unfolds the narrative of Jedidah, revealing diverse dimensions that mirror the experiences of typical Nigerians. The film offers multiple perspectives from which valuable lessons can be derived. Specifically, it delves into the life of a woman who bears five children from different fathers. Like many cinematic works, it weaves a tapestry of individual stories and experiences, each laden with instructive takeaways. While we will not attempt to identify all these issues and lessons, we will outline a few for discussion.

This article aims to pinpoint key issues and lessons embedded in the narrative, deserving careful consideration. I was deeply moved by her story, and I want to share some of the themes that I found in it.

The discussion is structured around the following themes:

1. Child-parent relationship and its consequences
2. Unity in Diversity
3. The Love of a Mother

Before delving into these themes, it is crucial to establish the backstory of the woman’s account, elucidating her encounters in motherhood with five children from five distinct men. Jedidah Judah, the daughter of a clergyman, faced a tumultuous journey marked by familial rejection and heartbreak. Disowned by her father for an out-of-wedlock pregnancy at the age of 17, she bore her first son, Emeka, as a testament to her young love for Kalu, an Igbo man from Nigeria’s southeast. Kalu’s departure left her to navigate the challenges of single motherhood.

The rejection and pain of single parenthood

In her quest for stability, she encountered Sani, a man from Kano in northern Nigeria, who offered marriage. However, Sani’s family rejected her due to her Yoruba background and the fact that Sani was already betrothed. Returning to the south, she found solace in Boma, whom she married officially and gave birth to Pere. Tragically, Boma passed away a year into their marriage, leaving her a widow with children.

Then came Lekan Isiyaka, also known as Swanky, a young and handsome lesson teacher. They wed, and Lekan assumed the role of a father to her children. However, a year into their union, Lekan absconded, taking away all that Boma had left for her and revealing his existing family in Ibadan.

Left with nothing to provide for her four children, Jedidah grappled with depression, seeking refuge in alcohol and beer parlours. During this difficult time, she had an encounter with a man in a similar state of despair, leading to another pregnancy and the birth of Ejiro. Ashamed of this development, she kept it a secret from Ejiro’s father.

Now burdened with the responsibility of raising five boys and limited financial resources, Jedidah continued to persevere. Despite the challenges, she remained resilient, keeping her children together as a family, albeit with various behavioural difficulties.

Betrayal, poverty, and loneliness

Her story reveals the need for action to attend to the mental health of mothers and ensure respect for human dignity in all interactions. Let us briefly look at some of the lessons and issues in the story.

Child-Parent Relationship and its Consequences: Jedidah’s relationship with her father plays a crucial role in shaping her life. The consequences of being disowned at a young age due to an out-of-wedlock pregnancy set the tone for the challenges she faces later. The strained relationship with her father not only affects her emotionally but also influences her choices in relationships. The absence of paternal support leaves her vulnerable, leading to a series of events where she seeks love and stability elsewhere. This affected her self-esteem and her sense of belonging. She also struggled to find a father figure for her children, who had different biological fathers from different ethnic groups. She married three times, but each time she was betrayed, abandoned, or widowed. Her children also suffered from the lack of a stable father figure, and some of them developed behavioural problems such as drug addiction, violence, or crime. However, Jedidah never stopped loving her children and tried to provide for them as best as she could. She also taught them to love each other and to respect their diverse backgrounds. She showed them that blood is not the only bond that makes a family.

The story reflects the profound impact that the child-parent relationship can have on an individual’s life trajectory. This is not to excuse the lady from getting pregnant outside wedlock but to advise a note of caution to parents who hastily pass harsh judgment and leave their children amid the beasts of the world who devour them without mercy. Most times, parents present a holier-than-thou persona or, out of fear of losing societal prestige, act in ways that put their children in more danger. It is okay to be angry and devastated, but if you can, always help redirect your children to the right path.

I know it is not easy to handle because you worked hard to train a child; just remember that we are all not perfect because the true character of a human being is what he or she does when no one is watching them. Therefore, it is necessary to use our strength to support people in times of weakness instead of adding to the pressure.

A good example of a supporting father is told of a popular American clergyman, Pastor T. D. Jakes, whose daughter, Sarah Jakes, got pregnant at a young age. Even amid the devastation of her pregnancy, her parents supported her graciously.

Unity in Diversity: The theme of unity in diversity is evident as Jedidah navigates relationships with men from different cultural backgrounds—Igbo, Yoruba, and others. Despite facing rejection from Sani’s family due to cultural differences, Jedidah’s commitment to keeping her children together as a family emphasizes the strength of unity. The diverse cultural backgrounds of the children, named Emeka, Adamu, Pere, Shina, and Ejiro, highlight the richness that can emerge from embracing diversity.

Jedidah’s story reflects the diversity of Nigeria, a country with over 250 ethnic groups and multiple religions. Jedidah herself was a Yoruba Christian, but she fell in love with men from different regions and faiths. She had a son with Kalu, an Igbo Christian; a son with Sani, a Hausa Muslim; two sons with Boma, an Ijaw Christian; and a son with Ejiro’s father, whose identity is unknown. Her children represented the diversity of Nigeria, but they also faced discrimination and prejudice from others who did not accept their mixed heritage. Jedidah taught them to embrace their diversity and to see it as a strength rather than a weakness. She also encouraged them to learn from each other and to respect their differences. She showed them that unity in diversity is possible and desirable.

Despite the challenges, Jedidah’s determination to unite her children under the umbrella of family underscores the theme of unity in diversity. There is so much more to achieve in unity than when we are divided. In my life journey, I have met people from different races, religions, cultures, and ethnicities. I have come to realize that it is not about race or religion that should determine your interaction with people, but about treating everyone as a human being who deserves the same things that you deserve. Unless we approach our interactions with respect for human dignity and self-worth, we will continue to create avenues for hate and animosity.

The love of a mother: Jedidah’s maternal love is a constant thread throughout the story. Despite the hardships and disappointments she faces in her relationships, her love for her children remains unwavering. From Emeka to Ejiro, each child is a testament to Jedidah’s enduring love and commitment as a mother. The sacrifices she makes, the struggles she endures, and her determination to keep her children together underscore the depth of maternal love. Even in the face of personal setbacks, Jedidah’s resilience and love for her children become a guiding force, shaping the narrative into a story of strength, perseverance, and the enduring nature of a mother’s love. Jedidah loved her children unconditionally, even when they made mistakes or hurt her. She sacrificed her own happiness and comfort for their sake. She worked hard to provide for their needs, even when she had nothing left for herself. She suffered from depression, alcoholism, and loneliness, but she never gave up on her children. She prayed for them and hoped for their success. She forgave them and welcomed them back when they returned to her. She showed them that the love of a mother is the most precious gift in life.

Pride of motherhood

Essentially, “A Tribe Called Judah” encourages reflection on the values and perceptions of society, the dynamics of family interactions, and the enduring strength of a mother’s love. It encourages people to tackle the complexity of human situations with compassion, empathy, and a commitment to creating a society that is more inclusive and supportive.

Urban governance: what are the issues?

INTRODUCTION TO A SERIES OF URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISCUSSIONS

Water Conservation and Demand Management: Nurturing Our Most Precious Resource in Nigeria

Water conservation- Charles Kyom Bijimi

Water is an essential resource that sustains life, yet its availability is becoming increasingly scarce in many parts of the world. As urbanization and population growth continue, the water demand is surging, straining existing water supply systems. To address this challenge, water conservation and demand management strategies play a crucial role in preserving our most valuable resource. In this article, we will delve into the importance of water conservation and discuss effective strategies for managing water demand sustainably. The conservation of water resources is a critical component of the effective and environmentally sustainable management of municipal water supplies (Dolnicar et al., 2012). Water conservation and demand management are vital aspects of sustainable urban water supply systems. As our population grows and water resources become increasingly strained, we must adopt strategies to minimize water waste and promote responsible water usage.

Understanding Water Conservation:

Water conservation entails carefully managing and preserving water resources through various practices and technologies (Saurí, 2013). The primary objective is to reduce water consumption without compromising our needs and quality of life (Wilkinson et al., 2001). By implementing effective conservation measures, we can minimize water wastage, protect ecosystems, and ensure the long-term availability of water.

Key Concepts and Practices:

1. Efficient Water Fixtures: Upgrading to water-efficient fixtures, such as low-flow toilets, faucets, and showerheads, can significantly reduce water usage without sacrificing performance or comfort. These fixtures limit the flow rate while maintaining optimal functionality (Willis et al., 2011; Dolnicar et al., 2012; Moglia et al., 2018).
2. Greywater Recycling: Implementing greywater recycling systems allows the reuse of lightly polluted water from sources like sinks, showers, and washing machines for non-potable purposes such as landscape irrigation and toilet flushing. Diverting greywater from the sewer system helps reduce freshwater demand (Surendran & Wheatley, 1998; Radingoana et al., 2020; Roshan & Kumar, 2020). Water reuse and recycling can help to reduce the demand for freshwater resources and minimize environmental impacts. This may involve using treated wastewater for irrigation, industrial processes, or other non-potable uses.
3. Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for later use is an effective method to decrease reliance on municipal water sources. Rainwater can be used for landscape irrigation, non-potable indoor uses, and, after appropriate treatment, even for drinking purposes in certain regions (Fewkes, 2006; Inman & Jeffrey, 2006; Fewkes, 2012).
4. Public Awareness and Education: : Raising awareness about the importance of water conservation and promoting behaviour change among stakeholders can help to reduce water demand. This may involve public education campaigns, water conservation incentives, and outreach to key sectors such as agriculture, industry, and households. Encouraging public participation and conducting awareness campaigns are crucial for water conservation. Educating individuals about the importance of water conservation and providing practical tips on reducing consumption can have a significant impact on behaviour change (Howarth & Butler, 2004; Charalambous et al., 2014; Choudhary et al., 2021).
5. Water Auditing and Leak Detection: Conducting water audits and leak detection can help to identify opportunities for reducing water demand and improving water use efficiency. This may involve identifying and repairing leaks in water supply systems, or identifying areas where water is being wasted due to inefficient use. Regular water audits in households, commercial buildings, and industrial facilities help identify areas of high water consumption and potential leaks. Timely detection and repair of leaks can prevent significant water loss and promote responsible water use. (Wang et al., 2001; Willis et al., 2011; Charalambous et al., 2014).

Water Conservation in Nigeria:

Water conservation encompasses various strategies, policies, and activities to preserve the natural resource of fresh water (Chukwu, 2015). These actions are conducted to safeguard the hydrosphere and fulfil human water demands (Cosgrove & Loucks, 2015; Strang, 2021). It involves initiatives to enhance water use efficiency, protect the environment, and improve the efficiency of industries, residential areas, utilities, and agriculture. Water conservation measures include reducing water losses, minimizing water usage, preventing pollution, and preserving water quality. It also involves implementing water management systems that reduce excess water consumption. Water conservation in Nigeria involves employing strategies to efficiently manage water resources, reduce waste, and ensure sustainable utilization (Nasara et al., 2021; Ngene et al., 2021). In Nigeria, the Nigeria River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) emerged as the first significant program related to water resources management in 1976 (Ahuchaogu et al., 2022). However, the country’s water conservation efforts currently face challenges. Organizations such as WaterAid, UNICEF, and USAID are involved in conservation programs in Nigeria, primarily focusing on water sanitation issues (Ezeabasili et al., 2014; Ahuchaogu et al., 2022).

It is crucial to emphasize deliberate efforts to conserve water use in the agricultural sector, which accounts for a substantial volume of water consumption, particularly in low-income countries like Nigeria (Ahuchaogu et al., 2022). Therefore, ensuring adequate and sustainable water supply for all requires agriculture and other high-consuming water resource activities to adopt more efficient water usage practices.

Here are key aspects of water conservation specifically relevant to Nigeria:

1.         Efficient Irrigation Practices: Agriculture accounts for a significant portion of water consumption in Nigeria. Promoting the adoption of efficient irrigation methods, such as drip irrigation and precision agriculture, can minimize water loss through evaporation and improve water-use efficiency. Additionally, supporting farmers with training and access to appropriate irrigation technologies can play a crucial role in conserving water in the agricultural sector. Efficient irrigation practices are crucial for water conservation and demand management in Nigeria’s agricultural sector (Zakari et al., 2021). By adopting practices such as drip irrigation, sprinkler systems, precision agriculture, and mulching, farmers can optimize water usage, minimize waste, and conserve water resources (Balasundram et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2023). Implementing proper irrigation scheduling, crop rotation, and selecting drought-tolerant crop varieties further enhance water efficiency. Regular monitoring and maintenance of irrigation systems are essential to identify and address issues promptly. Embracing these efficient irrigation practices can help Nigeria preserve its water resources, improve agricultural productivity, and ensure sustainable water management for future generations.

2. Rainwater Harvesting: Nigeria experiences distinct wet and dry seasons, making rainwater harvesting an effective strategy for water conservation. Encouraging the collection and storage of rainwater for domestic and agricultural use can alleviate pressure on traditional water sources during dry periods. Implementing rainwater harvesting systems in both rural and urban areas can contribute significantly to water availability and sustainability. Rainwater harvesting is a valuable approach for water conservation and demand management in Nigeria. With distinct wet and dry seasons, collecting and storing rainwater can alleviate pressure on existing water sources during droughts. Implementing rainwater harvesting systems, such as rooftop collection and storage tanks, can provide a sustainable water supply for various purposes, including household use, livestock watering, and irrigation. This practice reduces reliance on freshwater sources and promotes efficient water management. By embracing rainwater harvesting, Nigeria can enhance water availability, resilience, and address the challenges of water scarcity.

3. Water Loss Reduction: Addressing water losses due to leakages, pipe bursts, and inadequate infrastructure is essential for water conservation in Nigeria (Bhagat et al., 2019; Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2023). Investing in regular maintenance, repairs, and infrastructure upgrades can significantly minimize water losses and enhance the efficiency of water distribution systems. Reducing water loss is a crucial aspect of water conservation and demand management in Nigeria. Aging water distribution systems and inadequate maintenance contribute to significant water losses. Investing in infrastructure improvements, regular monitoring, and prompt repairs can minimize water losses, improve efficiency, and ensure a more sustainable water supply. By addressing water loss, Nigeria can optimize its water resources, reduce wastage, and meet the growing demand for water in a more efficient and responsible manner.

4. Efficient Domestic Water Use: Efficient domestic water use is essential for water conservation and demand management in Nigeria (Manouseli et al., 2019; Pani et al., 2021). Encouraging behaviours such as using water-saving fixtures, promptly fixing leaks, and practicing responsible water use habits can significantly reduce household water consumption (Chukwu, 2015; Curtis et al., 2019). Public awareness campaigns and educational programs play a vital role in fostering a culture of water conservation and encouraging these practices. By promoting efficient domestic water use, Nigeria can conserve water resources, ensure access to clean water for all, and contribute to a more sustainable water future. Promoting efficient water use practices at the household level is crucial. Encouraging behaviours such as using water-saving fixtures and appliances, fixing leaks promptly, and practicing responsible water use habits can contribute to conserving water resources in homes across Nigeria.

Challenges and Issues:

1. Water Scarcity: Water scarcity poses significant challenges for water conservation and demand management in Nigeria (Showers, 2002; Adah & Abok, 2013). The country faces various factors contributing to water scarcity, including population growth, climate change, inefficient water use practices, and inadequate infrastructure. These challenges are further exacerbated by the uneven distribution of water resources across different regions, leading to disparities in access and availability. Effective water conservation and demand management strategies are crucial to address these challenges. However, implementing such strategies requires overcoming obstacles like limited awareness and understanding of water conservation practices, inadequate financial resources, and weak governance and policy frameworks. Additionally, cultural and behavioural factors may also hinder the adoption of water-saving practices. To tackle these challenges, it is essential to promote public awareness, strengthen institutional capacity, improve infrastructure, and develop and enforce policies that incentivize sustainable water use practices. Collaborative efforts between government, communities, and stakeholders are vital to ensure the efficient management of water resources and mitigate the impacts of water scarcity in Nigeria.

2. Aging Infrastructure: Many parts of Nigeria grapple with outdated and inadequate water supply infrastructure, resulting in high levels of non-revenue water and inefficient distribution. A survey conducted on public water utilities (PWUs) in Nigeria reveals concerning working conditions due to frequent breakdowns, aging infrastructure, and poor asset management of urban water systems (Otun et al., 2011). Previous attempts to rehabilitate these systems have not effectively addressed the problem, resulting in a significant level of deterioration (Akpabio, 2012b; Abubakar, 2016). Currently, the overall condition of these assets is fairly poor, with most having only 10-35% of their expected useful life remaining (Otun et al., 2011). Additionally, their capacity utilization is low, and they require substantial maintenance (Otun et al., 2011). As a result, the service delivery and coverage of these utilities have been several Upgrading and maintaining infrastructure is crucial for reducing water losses and improving water management efficiency.

3. Behavioural Change:  Various concerns arise from the social and cultural understanding of water usage, as it directly influences the environmental relationship and impacts public health and sanitation programs in Nigeria (Akpabio, 2012a). The diverse meanings, beliefs, values, and ideas surrounding water usage dictate the available responses and behaviours of individuals. It is essential to provide incentives that encourage individuals to adopt water-conserving behaviours and enhance overall water conservation efforts. Encouraging behavioural change among individuals and communities to embrace water-saving practices can be a significant step to address the challenges of water conservation. Implementing education and awareness programs tailored for schools, communities, and businesses can play a pivotal role in promoting responsible water use and cultivating a conservation-oriented culture (Aluta, 2016).

4. Policy and Governance: The challenges related to policy and governance for water conservation and demand management in Nigeria are multifaceted (Balogun & Redina, 2019). One of the main challenges is the need to develop comprehensive and integrated policies that address the complex nature of water resources and usage in the country (Habila & Kehinde, 2003). Additionally, effective implementation and enforcement of these policies are often hindered by limited institutional capacity, inadequate funding, and a lack of coordination among various stakeholders. Another challenge is the need to strike a balance between water conservation efforts and meeting the increasing demand for water in a rapidly growing population. Furthermore, addressing socio-economic disparities and ensuring equitable access to water resources pose additional challenges. Overcoming these challenges requires a concerted effort to strengthen governance structures, enhance stakeholder engagement, and prioritize sustainable water management practices to ensure the long-term availability and sustainability of water resources in Nigeria.  Effective policies, regulations, and enforcement mechanisms are needed to promote water conservation and demand management. Clear guidelines on water efficiency, incentives for water-saving practices, and effective monitoring and enforcement are crucial for ensuring compliance and sustainable water management.

Conclusion:

Water conservation and demand management are essential strategies for preserving our precious water resources in the face of growing challenges. By implementing efficient water fixtures, exploring greywater recycling and rainwater harvesting, raising public awareness, and investing in infrastructure upgrades, we can reduce water waste and promote sustainable water usage. However, addressing water scarcity and fostering behavioural change will require collective efforts from individuals, communities, and policymakers. By prioritizing water conservation, we can safeguard our environment, support ecosystems, and secure water availability for generations to come.

Promoting water conservation and demand management is critical to ensure the sustainability of urban water supply systems. Effective water conservation and demand management can help to reduce water demand, increase water use efficiency, and minimize the need for costly and environmentally damaging water supply infrastructure. In Nigeria, water conservation and demand management are indispensable for addressing the challenges of water scarcity and ensuring the sustainable use of water resources. Through practices such as efficient water use, rainwater harvesting, and greywater management, Nigeria can make significant strides in conserving water. However, addressing issues such as water scarcity, aging infrastructure, fostering behavioural change, and implementing robust policies and governance mechanisms require collaborative efforts from government, communities, and individuals. By prioritizing water conservation and demand management, Nigeria can secure its water resources, enhance resilience to climate change, and provide sustainable access to water for its growing population.

References

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Adah, P., & Abok, G. (2013). Challenges of urban water management in Nigeria: The way forward. Journal of environmental sciences and resource management, 5(1), 111-121.

Ahuchaogu, I., Udoumoh, U., & Ehiomogue, P. (2022). Soil and Water Conservation Practices in Nigeria: A Review. International Journal of Agriculture and Earth Science 8(1). www.iiardjournals.org

Akpabio, E. M. (2012a). Water meanings, sanitation practices and hygiene behaviours in the cultural mirror: a perspective from Nigeria. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2(3), 168-181.

Akpabio, E. M. (2012b). Water Supply and Sanitation Services in Nigeria: The Policy Trend and Practice Constraints (Vol. 96). Center for Development Research, University of Bonn

Aluta, E. (2016). Participatory water governance in Nigeria: Towards the development of an effective legal framework for rural communities [PhD Thesis, University of the West of England].

Balasundram, S. K., Shamshiri, R. R., Sridhara, S., & Rizan, N. (2023). The Role of Digital Agriculture in Mitigating Climate Change and Ensuring Food Security: An Overview. Sustainability, 15(6), 5325.

Balogun, O. R., & Redina, M. M. (2019). Water supply regulation in Nigeria: problems, challenges, solutions and benefits. RUDN Journal of Ecology and Life Safety, 27(1), 65-81.

Bhagat, S. K., Tiyasha, Welde, W., Tesfaye, O., Tung, T. M., Al-Ansari, N., Salih, S. Q., & Yaseen, Z. M. (2019). Evaluating physical and fiscal water leakage in water distribution system. Water, 11(10), 2091.

Charalambous, B., Foufeas, D., & Petroulias, N. (2014). Leak detection and water loss management. Water Utility Journal, 8(3), 25-30.

Choudhary, S., Dohare, D., & Bajpai, S. (2021). Review on Conservation of Water by Water Audit. Current World Environment, 16(3), 694.

Chukwu, K. E. (2015). Water supply management policy in Nigeria: challenges in the wetland area of Niger Delta. European Scientific Journal, 11(26).

Cosgrove, W. J., & Loucks, D. P. (2015). Water management: Current and future challenges and research directions. Water Resources Research, 51(6), 4823-4839.

Curtis, V., Dreibelbis, R., Buxton, H., Izang, N., Adekunle, D., & Aunger, R. (2019, 2019/08/01/). Behaviour settings theory applied to domestic water use in Nigeria: A new conceptual tool for the study of routine behaviour. Social Science & Medicine, 235, 112398. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112398

Dolnicar, S., Hurlimann, A., & Grün, B. (2012, 2012/08/30/). Water conservation behavior in Australia. Journal of environmental management, 105, 44-52. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.03.042

Ezeabasili, A., Okoro, B., & Ezeabasili, A. (2014). Water resources: management and strategies in Nigeria. International Journal of Science and Technology, 3(1), 35-54.

Fewkes, A. (2006). The technology, design and utility of rainwater catchment systems. Water demand management, 27-61.

Fewkes, A. (2012). A review of rainwater harvesting in the UK. Structural Survey, 30(2), 174-194.

Habila, O. N., & Kehinde, M. O. (2003). Public water supply quality management in Nigeria 29th WEDC International Conference, 

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Inman, D., & Jeffrey, P. (2006). A review of residential water conservation tool performance and influences on implementation effectiveness. Urban Water Journal, 3(3), 127-143.

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Nasara, M. A., Zubairu, I., Jagaba, A. H., Azare, A. A., Yerima, Y. M., & Yerima, B. (2021). Assessment of Non-Revenue Water Management Practices in Nigeria (A Case Study of Bauchi State Water and Sewerage Cooperation). American Journal of Engineering Research, 10(5), 390-401.

Ngene, B. U., Nwafor, C. O., Bamigboye, G. O., Ogbiye, A. S., Ogundare, J. O., & Akpan, V. E. (2021). Assessment of water resources development and exploitation in Nigeria: A review of integrated water resources management approach. Heliyon, 7(1), e05955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e05955

Otun, J. A., Oke, I. A., & Oguntuase, A. (2011). Issues and challenges of decaying urban water infrastructure in Nigeria 35th WEDC International Conference, Loughborough, UK, 2011, Loughborough, UK, . https://hdl.handle.net/2134/30132

Pani, A., Ghatak, I., & Mishra, P. (2021). Understanding the water conservation and management in India: an integrated study. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 7, 1-16.

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Roshan, A., & Kumar, M. (2020). Water end-use estimation can support the urban water crisis management: A critical review. Journal of environmental management, 268, 110663.

Saurí, D. (2013). Water conservation: Theory and evidence in urban areas of the developed world. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 38, 227-248.

Showers, K. B. (2002). Water scarcity and urban Africa: an overview of urban–rural water linkages. World Development, 30(4), 621-648.

Strang, V. (2021). Envisioning a sustainable future for water. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua, 70(4), 404-419.

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Vyas-Doorgapersad, S. (2023). Investigating the use of PPPs for upgraded urban water infrastructure. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478), 12(3), 452-460.

Wang, X., Simpson, A., Lambert, M., & Vítkovský, J. (2001). Leak detection in pipeline systems using hydraulic methods: A review. Proceedings of the Conference on Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, the Institution of Engineers, Hobart, Australia,

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Willis, R. M., Stewart, R. A., Panuwatwanich, K., Williams, P. R., & Hollingsworth, A. L. (2011, 2011/08/01/). Quantifying the influence of environmental and water conservation attitudes on household end use water consumption. Journal of environmental management, 92(8), 1996-2009. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.03.023

Zakari, M. D., Dalhat, H. N., Ohiudi, I. S., Shamsu, S., Mohammed, D., Ahmadu, S. E., Ibrahim, A., Nasidi, N. M., Shanono, N. J., & Sabo, A. A. (2021). Assessing the farmers’ awareness and practices of irrigation water conservation techniques in Kano–Nigeria. Algerian Journal of Engineering and Technology, 5, 14-18.

THE GEOGRAPHY GREEN SCHOOL PROJECT WORKSHOP 2017

Reaching out to teachers and students of Geography.Teachers were engaged in a 5 hours lecture and training on GIS.

1. The place of Geography in achieving sustainable development goals.

2. On-hands training on ArcGIS ( Map making and Geo-referencing).

3. The GIS technology and its applications.

The teachers were encouraged to further develop their skills in the GIS technology and use Geography as a problem solving subject with the collaborative efforts of the students.

The geography green school project of Zonkwa zonal office has come to stay offering research consultancy,training and event planning. You can reach us through the email: charliekyom2k4@yahoo.com.

U.S. Conducts Airstrike Against Al Shabab Militants in Somalia — TIME

The U.S. military conducted an airstrike against al Shabab militants in southern Somalia early Thursday, Pentagon officials said. A very small group of U.S. military advisers accompanied some Ugandan soldiers during a raid of an illegal taxation checkpoint in rural southern Somalia just west of Mogadishu, Pentagon spokesperson Captain Jeff Davis said. The U.S. was…

via U.S. Conducts Airstrike Against Al Shabab Militants in Somalia — TIME

THE PLUTO DEBATE IN THE NEW DEFINITION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

THE PLUTO DEBATE IN THE NEW DEFINITION OF SOLAR SYSTEM.

Climatic Classification

I came across this very interesting piece ( Read)
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION

Early Attempts at Global Climatic Classification
Very early attempts by the ancient Greeks at classifying climate were logic-based, and resulted in Paramenides’ identification of three principal climate regions; the Frigid Zone, the Temperate Zone, and the Torrid Zone
Other climatic classification schemes followed, including one by Hipparchus who updated the Paramenides classification by including information on the calculated day length for particular locations
Logic-based climatic classification systems ruled until the development and proliferation of weather recording instrumentation

The Classical Age of Climatic Classifications
The Modified Köppen Climatic Classification System utilizes monthly temperature and precipitation data in making calculations upon which the classification scheme is based
Köppen identified five main climatic groups: A (tropical), B (arid), C (mesothermal or mid-latitude mild), D (microthermal or mid-latitude cold), and E (polar)
In general, the A, C, and D climates support the growth of trees, whereas the B and E climates do not, being either too dry or too cold, respectively
In the case of A, C, and D climates, the second-order subdivision refers to the precipitation seasonality (with “f” representing climates that are wet year-round, “s” indicating summer dry climates, “w” representing winter dry climates, and “m” representing tropical monsoon conditions)
For B climates, the second-order subdivision is “S” if the dry climates are only semi-arid, and “W” if the dry climates are true deserts
In the case of “E” climates, the second-order subdivision is “T” for the milder Tundra sub-type of polar climate, while “F” (frozen) is used to represent the Ice Cap subtype
For the mesothermal and microthermal climates, third-order subdivisions identify the characteristics of summer temperatures, with “a” representing hot summers, “b” used for warm summers, “c” indicating mild summers, and the rare “d” indicating cool summers
Arid climates have a third-order subdivision of “h” and “k” which are used to denote “hot” and “cold” arid or semi-arid regions, respectively
The Thornthwaite Climatic Classification System is built on the physical interactions between local moisture and temperature rather than only the precipitation and temperature data. It represents a more sophisticated and precise scheme of classification based on local surface water balances
Thornthwaite devised a number of specific indices to quantify necessary climatic components, including the moisture index (MI) and the potential evapotranspiration (PE) rate for a location
Thornthwaite also derived a Thermal Efficiency Index (T/ET) of the ratio of temperature (T) to a calculated evapotranspiration (ET) value, and a Dryness Index (DI) and Humidity Index (HI) to identify the times of the year with water deficit or surplus
Other Global Classification Systems
The Holdridge Life Zones Climatic Classification System was intended to be for global application, but it became most widely used in tropical areas, where it has proved useful in ecological and alpine applications
The Budyko Climatic Classification System uses an energy budget approach to classifying climates

Genetic Classifications
Strategy is to classify climates solely on the basis of the major forcing mechanisms that make climate the way that it is
The Bergeron Climatic Classification System, devised by Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron in 1928, is one early-modern genetic classification system. This system categorizes the climate at a location based on the manual and somewhat subjective determination of frequency with which it is dominated by certain types of weather
Air Masses and Fronts
The Bjerknes model classified areas of a surface cyclone and associated pressure features into specific sectors with each section exhibiting particular weather characteristics
An air mass is a body of air that is relatively uniform in its characteristics for distances of hundreds to thousands of kilometers, with its characteristics resulting largely from the characteristics of the place where the air mass forms – the source region
Air mass types include: the intensely-cold and dry Arctic (A) type; the slightly warmer and more humid continental polar (cP); cool, humid maritime polar (mP); warm, humid maritime tropical (mT), hot, dry continental tropical (cT), and the “E” air masses of equatorial origin – a more extreme version of the mT type
A cold front represents a situation in which a colder air mass is pushing a warmer air mass back toward its source region
A warm front is a region where a warmer air mass is displacing a colder one poleward
In a stationary front, the cold and warm air mass may temporarily be at a stalemate, with neither air mass pushing the other backward
A cold front and warm front generally emanate from a central region of low pressure in a midlatitude wave cyclone
After the midlatitude wave cyclone travels eastward for a few days in the mid-latitude westerlies, the cold front will actually catch up with the warm front near the cyclonic center, where the two fronts are closest to each other, resulting in an occluded front

Local and Regional Classifications
The Lamb Weather Types and Muller Weather Types are based on the mid-latitude wave cyclone model
These are manual systems – meaning that the researcher subjectively categorizes the types based on his/her interpretation of the weather map on a given day

Quantitative Analysis to Derive Climatic Types
Eigenvector Analysis is helpful for identifying relationships between two different sets of variables (such as spatial data points, observations of an atmospheric variable through time, or atmospheric variables) to be analyzed simultaneously
In synoptic typing, eigenvector analysis may be used whereby the atmospheric variables may collectively represent the properties that dominate, and locations where similar characteristics of the atmosphere tend to occur simultaneously would be categorized as part of the same type for that entity of time
Cluster Analysis
The actual classification process in any eigenvector analysis (including PCA) comes when the matrix of loadings or scores (which usually represents the spatial and temporal variability (respectively) in the data set) is subjected to a cluster analysis
Several types of cluster analysis can be used with each giving a slightly different classification result, but all have the common goal of selecting the groups so that the distance in n-dimensional space between the points within the cluster (within-group variability) is minimized
Hybrid Techniques
Typically require the investigator to identify “prototype” atmospheric circulation patterns manually – a “textbook” case of each particular genetic category, with the computerized cluster analysis used to categorize all other days (or months, if monthly mean data are used) automatically, quickly, and efficiently, into the group with the prototype day (or month) that the weather map for the day (or month) in question most resembles

Culled from untitled document.

“NOTES ON URBAN RENEWAL: DEFINITION, STRATEGIES, SUCCESS OR FAILURE”

“NOTES ON URBAN RENEWAL: DEFINITION, STRATEGIES, SUCCESS OR FAILURE”.